Short answer
No: China's oldest books do not show one God (﷾) worshipped alone. They speak of a Lord on high, Shangdi (Shang Ti). James Legge, who translated them into English, writes "God" for him. The books also speak of Heaven (Tian), which marks out the good and punishes the guilty. But they honour many other spirits beside the Lord on high. And the great sacrifice to Heaven was the ruler's alone. In Islam anyone may worship God (﷾) directly, and all worship is for Him alone. God (﷾) says, "I listen to the prayer of every suppliant when he calleth on Me" (2:186). The Qur'an says every people had a warner (35:24). It calls all people to the One God (﷾), who "begetteth not, nor is He begotten" (112:3).
Full explanation
What the oldest Chinese books say of Heaven and the Lord on high
Old Chinese books speak of a power above the ruler. The Shujing (Legge's Shu King), the Book of Documents, holds speeches and records. The Shijing (Shih King), the Book of Odes, holds poems. Both name this power Tian, which means Heaven, and Shangdi (Shang Ti), the Lord on high. James Legge (1815-1897), a Christian missionary, translated these books. Where the Chinese has Di (Lord) or Shangdi, he writes "God". This page keeps his word in quotations, and otherwise says the Lord on high. In the Counsels of Kao-yao, a minister says that Heaven marks out the virtuous and punishes the guilty. The ruler's ranks and punishments carry this out. In the Announcement of the Duke of Shao, the Lord on high has changed his decree about the Yin (Shang) dynasty, before the Zhou (Chau). The books say that Heaven gives and takes away the right to rule. The Shujing calls this the decree of Heaven (tianming). In English it is often called the Mandate of Heaven. One ode calls the Lord on high great, beholding the world. Another calls him the ruler of men below. This page argues from what the books say Heaven and the Lord on high do, never from a word.
“Heaven graciously distinguishes the virtuous;—are there not the five habiliments, five decorations of them? Heaven punishes the guilty;—are there not the five punishments, to be severally used for that purpose?”
“Oh! God (dwelling in) the great heavens has changed his decree respecting his great son and the great dynasty of Yin.”
“Great is God, Beholding this lower world in majesty.”
“How vast is God, The ruler of men below!”
Legge, a Protestant missionary, argues in this book that Shangdi is the right Chinese word for the God of the Bible. This was one side of the missionaries' dispute over the Chinese name for God. In his translations of the Chinese classics he renders Di and Shangdi as "God".
A Chinese philosopher's reading of Heaven in the old books
Fung Yu-lan (1895-1990), a Chinese philosopher, listed five meanings of Tian in Chinese writing. They are the physical sky, a ruling Heaven, fate, nature and a moral principle. He found that the Shijing and the Shujing, apart from the sky, seem generally to mean the ruling Heaven, one like a person. He thought the same seems true of Confucius in the Analects. He also wrote that Shangdi presided over a hierarchy of spirits who were secondary to him. Fung wrote as a historian of Chinese ideas.
Fung, a Chinese philosopher, lists five meanings of Tian in Chinese writing: the physical sky, a ruling or presiding Heaven (one like a person, as in "Supreme Emperor"), fate, nature (the sense of Xunzi's chapter 17, "Discussion on Heaven"), and an ethical principle (the sense of the Doctrine of the Mean). He finds that the references to Heaven in the Shih King, Shu King, Zuo zhuan and Guoyu, apart from the physical sky, seem generally to mean the ruling Heaven, and that this also seems to be the Heaven Confucius speaks of in the Analects. He adds that Shangdi, the Supreme Emperor, presided over a hierarchy of spirits who were secondary to him.
Confucius spoke of Heaven too
Confucius speaks of Heaven as one who can be offended. An official asked him about a saying on which household spirit it is better to court. Confucius answered, "He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray" (3.13). Naming a man who had threatened him, he said that Heaven produced the virtue in him (7.22). Legge translates the Chinese word de as "virtue".
“He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray.”
“The Master said, 'Heaven produced the virtue that is in me. Hwan T'ui-- what can he do to me?'”
Who could sacrifice to Heaven, and who was honoured beside the Lord on high
The Shujing says that the sage-king Shun sacrificed to the Lord on high (Legge writes "God"). He also sacrificed to the Six Honoured Ones, to the hills and rivers, and to the host of spirits. Legge says no one can now be sure who the Six Honoured Ones were. He notes that the passage shows the sovereign using his own right of worship. The Analects says that Confucius sacrificed to the spirits as if they were present. The Book of Rites (Liji; Legge's Li Ki) says that the Son of Heaven sacrificed to Heaven and Earth. The Son of Heaven is the title of the ruler. Princes sacrificed to the spirits of the land and grain. Much later, the Ming and Qing emperors offered sacrifice to Heaven at the Temple of Heaven in Beijing. This page speaks only of that state sacrifice.
“Thereafter, he sacrificed specially, but with the ordinary forms, to God; sacrificed with reverent purity to the Six Honoured Ones; offered their appropriate sacrifices to the hills and rivers; and extended his worship to the host of spirits.”
“He sacrificed to the dead, as if they were present. He sacrificed to the spirits, as if the spirits were present.”
“The son of Heaven sacrificed to Heaven and Earth; the princes of the states, to the (spirits of the) land and grain; Great officers offered the five sacrifices (of the house).”
The UNESCO listing describes the Temple of Heaven in Beijing as a complex of sacrificial buildings, founded in the first half of the 15th century, where the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties offered sacrifice to Heaven.
| Who offered it | To whom |
|---|---|
| The sage-king Shun | The Lord on high, the Six Honoured Ones, the hills and rivers, and the host of spirits |
| The Son of Heaven, the ruler | Heaven and Earth |
| The princes | The spirits of the land and grain |
| In Islam, every person | God (﷾) alone, directly, with no go-between |
In Islam everyone worships God (﷾) directly
Ordinary people in the old books did cry out to Heaven. But only the ruler offered the great sacrifice to Heaven, and spirits were honoured beside the Lord on high. In Islam anyone may worship God (﷾) directly, and all worship is for Him alone. No ruler or priest offers it on a person's behalf. God (﷾) says that He is close, and that He listens to the prayer of every suppliant. He says, "Call on Me; I will answer your (Prayer)". He also says, "We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein". So no one needs a go-between to reach Him.
“The poor people in such a case, carrying their children and leading their wives, made their moan to Heaven.”
“He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray.”
“When My servants ask thee concerning Me, I am indeed close (to them): I listen to the prayer of every suppliant when he calleth on Me: Let them also, with a will, Listen to My call, and believe in Me: That they may walk in the right way.”
“And your Lord says: "Call on Me; I will answer your (Prayer): but those who are too arrogant to serve Me will surely find themselves in Hell - in humiliation!"”
“It was We Who created man, and We know what dark suggestions his soul makes to him: for We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein.”
A warner to every people
The Qur'an says there never was a people without a warner. It says God (﷾) sent a messenger among every people with the command to serve God (﷾) and shun evil. Ibn Kathir, a Muslim commentator of the fourteenth century, explains that no nation passed without warners, so none was left with an excuse. The Qur'an tells the stories of some messengers and not of others. It names none sent to China, and no one can now say who they were. So Islam does not say which old sayings, if any, echo a messenger's teaching. The Qur'an claims to be God's (﷾) own word, and it invites a test. The page on how to test a scripture explains how.
“Verily We have sent thee in truth, as a bearer of glad tidings, and as a warner: and there never was a people, without a warner having lived among them (in the past).”
“For We assuredly sent amongst every People a messenger, (with the Command), "Serve Allah, and eschew Evil": of the People were some whom Allah guided, and some on whom error became inevitably (established). So travel through the earth, and see what was the end of those who denied (the Truth).”
Explains the verse: no nation of the children of Adam has passed without God sending warners to it and removing every excuse. He sets beside it 13:7, "to every people a guide", and 16:36, "We assuredly sent amongst every People a messenger". He says there are many verses on this.
“To every people (was sent) a messenger: when their messenger comes (before them), the matter will be judged between them with justice, and they will not be wronged.”
“We did aforetime send messengers before thee: of them there are some whose story We have related to thee, and some whose story We have not related to thee. It was not (possible) for any messenger to bring a sign except by the leave of Allah: but when the Command of Allah issued, the matter was decided in truth and justice, and there perished, there and then those who stood on Falsehoods.”
“Of some messengers We have already told thee the story; of others We have not;- and to Moses Allah spoke direct;-”
“And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time to Our servant, then produce a Sura like thereunto; and call your witnesses or helpers (If there are any) besides Allah, if your (doubts) are true.”
“Do they not consider the Qur'an (with care)? Had it been from other Than Allah, they would surely have found therein Much discrepancy.”
The One God (﷾), and a whole way of life
The Qur'an calls every people to the One God (﷾). He is Allah (﷾), the One and Only. He begets not and is not begotten, and none is like Him. No son has He begotten, and He has no partner in His dominion. Muhammad (ﷺ) was sent to all people. Islam is not only a belief about God (﷾). It is a complete way of life (deen), with belief, worship, law, family and character together. The page "What is Islam?" shows it whole. Read the Qur'an, test it, and ask whether Muhammad (ﷺ) is the last messenger God (﷾) sent.
“Say: He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him.”
“He to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth: no son has He begotten, nor has He a partner in His dominion: it is He who created all things, and ordered them in due proportions.”
“Say: "O men! I am sent unto you all, as the Messenger of Allah, to Whom belongeth the dominion of the heavens and the earth: there is no god but He: it is He That giveth both life and death. So believe in Allah and His Messenger, the Unlettered Prophet, who believeth in Allah and His words: follow him that (so) ye may be guided."”
“This day have I perfected your religion for you, completed My favour upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion.”
“O ye who believe! Enter into Islam whole-heartedly; and follow not the footsteps of the evil one; for he is to you an avowed enemy.”
“Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but (he is) the Messenger of Allah, and the Seal of the Prophets: and Allah has full knowledge of all things.”
“And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time to Our servant, then produce a Sura like thereunto; and call your witnesses or helpers (If there are any) besides Allah, if your (doubts) are true.”
“Do they not consider the Qur'an (with care)? Had it been from other Than Allah, they would surely have found therein Much discrepancy.”
Reply by reply
Shih King, Major Odes, Decade of Wan Wang, Ode 7, stanza 7 — Hwang I
“God said to king Wan, ‘I am pleased with your intelligent virtue.”
Cited for
Heaven already spoke to our sages. The Odes say, "God said to king Wan, 'I am pleased with your intelligent virtue.'" China needs no Arab prophet.
The response
The ode is a poem made by men about King Wen (Wan), a founder of the Zhou dynasty. In it, "God" is Legge's word for the Chinese Di, the Lord on high. A poet's report is not a book that claims to be God's (﷾) own word. The Qur'an makes that claim, and it invites a test (2:23; 4:82). Its messenger was sent to all people, not to Arabs alone (7:158).
Where it lands — The ode tells of the Lord on high speaking to a king, but it does not claim to be God's (﷾) own book. The Qur'an does, and invites a test.
The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven (1603)
Ricci, a Jesuit missionary in China, wrote this book as a dialogue for Confucian scholars. Arguing from the old Chinese classics, he held that the Shangdi of those books is the God whom Christians worship, the one Lord of heaven and earth. He held that the knowledge of serving Shangdi had long been lost in China, and that the Christian faith would restore it.
Cited for
Ricci and Legge held that the Lord on high of the old books is the God Christians worship. So China's way back to him is through Christ.
The response
That does not follow. The old books speak of no son and no incarnation, so they point no one to Christ. A translator's "God" decides nothing. The real question is which message is God's (﷾) own word. The Qur'an invites the test (2:23; 4:82), and it says God (﷾) has no son and no partner (112:3; 25:2).
Where it lands — A missionary's reading, or a translator's choice of "God", does not show that China knew the Christian God. The Qur'an's call is to the One God (﷾) who has no son.
Perspectives
What the oldest Chinese books show
Old Chinese books speak of Heaven and a Lord on high who judges and gives rule. The same books show other spirits honoured beside him, and a great state sacrifice that only the ruler could offer.
The Shujing has a minister say that Heaven distinguishes the virtuous and punishes the guilty. The ruler's ranks and punishments carry this out.
The Shujing and the Shijing speak of the Lord on high (Shangdi) as the one who changes the decree that gives rule. He beholds the world and rules men below. Legge's translation calls him "God", for the Chinese Di and Shangdi.
Fung Yu-lan finds that the Shijing and the Shujing seem generally to mean a ruling Heaven, one like a person. This seems to be the Heaven of Confucius too.
The Shujing and the Analects show other spirits honoured beside the Lord on high. Shun sacrificed to him (Legge writes "God") and also to the host of spirits. Confucius sacrificed to the spirits as if they were present.
In the Book of Rites, the Son of Heaven sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, and princes to the spirits of the land and grain. The Ming and Qing emperors later offered sacrifice at the Temple of Heaven.
Confucian: Heaven is nature, principle, or the moral order within
Some Confucian thinkers read Tian as nature (Xunzi), as principle (Zhu Xi), or as the moral order met within one's own nature. On such readings Heaven is not someone who commands or judges.
Xunzi, a Confucian thinker, read Tian as nature. Fung Yu-lan names his chapter 17, "Discussion on Heaven", as the example of this sense.
Rebuttal
Granted: Xunzi read Heaven as nature. But nature's fixed patterns are what need explaining. A pattern describes what happens; it does not make anything happen, or exist. The Qur'an points to the heavens and the earth, the night and the day, the rain and the winds as signs (2:164). The Shujing itself has Heaven punishing the guilty.
Mencius says that one who knows his nature knows Heaven. Commenting on Analects 3.13, Zhu Xi (1130-1200) wrote that Heaven is principle (li). His edition of the Four Books later became the basis of the state examinations. Some Confucians read Heaven as the moral order met within oneself.
Rebuttal
Mencius ties Heaven to our nature, yet he speaks of serving Heaven. Zhu Xi said it will not do to picture a man in heaven judging sins, nor to say that nothing rules at all. For him, what rules is principle itself. But a principle that does not think or will cannot command, judge or be served. An "ought" needs One who commands. The Shujing has Heaven marking out the virtuous and punishing the guilty.
The sages honoured Heaven and the spirits together. Shun sacrificed to the Lord on high (Legge writes "God") and to the host of spirits. Confucius sacrificed to the spirits as if they were present.
Rebuttal
Granted: the books show it. Islam's rule is the same for every people: "invoke not any one along with Allah" (72:18). No spirit is needed to bring anyone nearer, for God (﷾) listens to every suppliant (2:186; 50:16). Only God (﷾) judges what became of anyone in the past. He sends His wrath on no one until He has sent a messenger (17:15), and He is never unjust (4:40).
Christian: the Lord on high is the God of the Bible
Some Christians have read the Shangdi of the old Chinese books as the God Christians worship. Chinese Christians have used the name Shangdi for God.
Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit missionary, wrote The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven (1603). Arguing from the old Chinese books, he held that their Shangdi is the God whom Christians worship.
Rebuttal
The old books speak of a Lord on high, but of no son and no incarnation. So even on Ricci's reading, they cannot show that China knew the Christian faith. The real question is which message is God's (﷾) own word, and that can be tested (2:23). The Qur'an says God (﷾) has no son and no partner (112:3; 25:2).
James Legge argued in 1852 that Shangdi is the right Chinese word for the God of the Bible. His translations write "God" for Di and Shangdi, as the quotations on this page do.
Rebuttal
Legge did argue this, but it was one side of a missionaries' dispute over the Chinese name for God (﷾). A translator's word decides nothing. That is why this page argues from what the books say Heaven and the Lord on high do, not from a word. The Qur'an calls every people to the God (﷾) who has no son and no partner (25:2).
The Islamic perspective
The old Chinese books tell of a Lord on high, but other spirits were honoured beside him, and the great sacrifice was the ruler's alone. Islam teaches that every person may worship God (﷾) directly, and that every people had a warner. It teaches that God (﷾) is One, with no son and no partner.
The Qur'an says there never was a people without a warner. God (﷾) sent a messenger among every people.
The Qur'an names no warner sent to China. So Islam does not say which old sayings, if any, echo a messenger's teaching.
God (﷾) listens to every person who calls on Him, and says, "We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein". So nothing need stand between a person and God (﷾).
The Qur'an records the reason people give for serving others beside God (﷾): that they bring them nearer. It answers that all worship is for God (﷾) alone.
God (﷾) is One. He begets not and is not begotten, and He has no partner in His dominion.
Islam is a complete way of life. Muhammad (ﷺ) was sent to all people, and the Qur'an invites everyone to test it.